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For other uses, see Wine (disambiguation).
Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of grape juice.Wine, Encyclopedia Britannica online, Retrieved 24 February 2007. The natural chemical balance of grapes is such that they can ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes or other nutrients. H. Johnson Vintage: The Story of Wine pp. 11–6 Simon & Schuster 1989 ISBN 0671791826 Although other fruits such as apples and berries can also be fermented, the resultant "wines" are normally named after the fruit from which they are produced (for example, apple wine or elderberry wine) and are generically known as fruit or country wine. Others, such as barley wine and rice wine (e.g. sake), are made from starch-based materials and resemble beer more than wine, while ginger wine is fortified with brandy. In these cases, the use of the term "wine" is a reference to the higher alcohol content, rather than production process.Barley Wine, The Brewer\'s Corner, Retrieved February 24 2007. The commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.George, Rosemary, The Simon & Schuster Pocket Wine Label Decoder, 1989. Wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using various types of yeast which consume the sugars found in the grapes and convert them into alcohol. Various varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are used depending on the types of wine produced. Introduction to Wine. 2basnob.com.
Wine stems from an extended and rich history dating back about 8,000 years and is thought to have originated in present day Georgia or Iran. 8,000-year-old wine unearthed in Georgia. The Independent. Retrieved on 2003-12-28.World\'s Earliest Wine. Archeology, vol. 49 (1996), Retrieved 24 February 2004. Wine is thought to have appeared in Europe about 6,500 years ago in present-day Bulgaria and Greece and was very common in classical Greece and Rome. Wine has also played an important role in religion since ancient times. The Greek God Dionysos and the Roman God Bacchus represented wine. Wine has also played an important role in religious ceremonies of Christianity and Judaism, such as the Eucharist and Kiddush.
The word "wine" derives from the Proto-Germanic *winam, an early borrowing from the Latin vinum, "wine" or "(grape) vine", itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European stem *win-o- (cf. Ancient Greek οῖνος - oînos, Aeolic Greek fοίνος - foinos)Wine etymology, etymonline.com, Retrieved 24 February 2007.Foinos, Etymologicon Magnum. Similar words for wine or grapes are found in the Semitic languages (cf. Arabic ﻭﻳﻦ wayn) and in Georgian (ğvino), and the term is considered an ancient wanderwort.Bretcher, T., etal, John Enjoys his Glass of Wine — Are there any English Words at all?, eHistLing Vol. 1.
A glass of red wine
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Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest wine production came from sites in Georgia and Iran, dating from 6000 to 5000 BC.8,000-year-old wine unearthed in Georgia. The Independent. Retrieved on 2003-12-28.World\'s Earliest Wine. Archeology, vol. 49 (1996), Retrieved 24 February 2004. The archaeological evidence becomes clearer, and points to domestication of grapevine, in Early Bronze Age sites of the Near East, Sumer and Egypt from around the third millennium BC.Verango, Dan. "White wine turns up in King Tutankhamen\'s tomb", USA Today, 2006-05-29. Retrieved on 2007-09-06.
Wine boy at a symposium.
The very oldest known evidence suggesting wine production in Europe and second oldest in the world comes from archaeological sites in Greece and is dated to 6,500 years ago.Ancient Mashed Grapes Found in Greece Discovery News.Mashed grapes find re-write history of wine Zeenews6500 year old Mashed grapes found. The same archaeological sites in Greece also contain remnants of the world’s earliest evidence of crushed grapes.Ancient Mashed Grapes Found in Greece Discovery News. In fact, Greek sources as well as Pliny the Elder describe how the ancient Greeks used partly dehydrated gypsum before fermentation and some type of lime after fermentation to reduce acidity. The Greek writer Theophrastus is actually the oldest known source to describe this aspect of Greek wine making.Caley, Earle (1956). Theophrastis On Stone. Ohio State University. Online version: Gypsum/lime in wine
In Egypt, wine became a part of recorded history, playing an important role in ancient ceremonial life. Wine was possibly introduced into Egypt by the Ancient Greeks.6500 year old mashed grapes found; World\'s earliest evidence of crushed grapes Traces of wine were also found in China, dating from the second and first millennium BCWine Production in China 3000 years ago.
Wine was common in classical Greece and Rome.The history of wine in ancient Greece at greekwinemakers.com The Ancient Greeks introduced vines such as Vitis viniferaIntroduction to Wine Laboratory Practices and Procedures, Jean L. Jacobson, Springer, p. 84. and made wine in their numerous colonies in Italy,The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, Brian Murray Fagan, 1996 Oxford Univ Pr, p. 757. Sicily,Wine: A Scientific Exploration, Merton Sandler, Roger Pinder, CRC Press, p. 66. southern France,Medieval France: an encyclopedia, William Westcott Kibler, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, p. 964. and Spain. Dionysos was the Greek god of wine and revelry, and wine was frequently referred to in the works of Homer and Aesop. The Romans established many of the major wine-producing regions of Western Europe. Wine making technology improved considerably during the time of the Roman Empire. Many grape varieties and cultivation techniques were known, and barrels were developed for storing and shipping wine. R. Phillips A Short History of Wine p. 37 Harper Collins 2000 ISBN 0060937378
Since Roman times, wine (potentially mixed with herbs and minerals) was assumed to serve medicinal purposes as well. During Roman times it was not uncommon to dissolve pearls in wine for better health. Cleopatra created her own legend by promising Marc Anthony she would "drink the value of a province" in one cup of wine, after which she drank an expensive pearl with a cup of wine. Another medieval application was the use of snake-stones (banded Agate resembling the figural rings on a snake) dissolved in wine against snake bites, which shows an early understanding of the effects of alcohol on the central nervous system in such situations.
In medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church was a staunch supporter of wine which was necessary for the celebration of Mass. In places such as Germany, beer was banned and considered pagan and barbaric while wine consumption was viewed as civilized and a sign of conversion.R. Phillips A Short History of Wine pp. 62–3 Harper Collins 2000 ISBN 0060937378 Wine was also forbidden in the Islamic civilization, but after Geber and other Muslim chemists pioneered the distillation of wine, it was used for other purposes, including cosmetic and medical uses.Ahmad Y Hassan, Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources. In fact the 10th century Persian philosopher and scientist Al Biruni described recipes where herbs, minerals and even gemstones are mixed with wine for medicinal purposes. Wine was so revered and its effect so feared that elaborate theories were developed which gemstone-cups would best counteract its negative side effects.Wine Drinking and Making in Antiquity: Historical References on the Role of Gemstones Scientists such as Al Biruni, Theophrastus, Georg Agricola, Albertus Magnus as well as newer authors such as George Frederick Kunz describe talismanic, medicinal uses of minerals and wine combined.
Wine grapes on a vine
Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species, Vitis vinifera. When one of these varieties, such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, or Merlot, for example, is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as a minimum of 75 or 85%) the result is a varietal, as opposed to a blended wine. Blended wines are in no way inferior to varietal wines; some of the world\'s most valued and expensive wines from the Bordeaux, Rioja or Tuscany regions are a blend of grape varieties of the same vintage.
Wine can also be made from other species or from hybrids, created by the genetic crossing of two species. Vitis labrusca, Vitis aestivalis, Vitis rupestris, Vitis rotundifolia and Vitis riparia are native North American grapes, usually grown for eating in fruit form or made into grape juice, jam, or jelly, but sometimes made into wine, eg. Concord wine (Vitis labrusca species).
Hybrids are not to be confused with the practice of grafting. Most of the world\'s vineyards are planted with European vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North American species rootstock. This is common practice because North American grape species are resistant to phylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine. In the late 19th century, Europe\'s vineyards were devastated by the bug, leading to massive vine deaths and eventual replanting. Grafting is done in every wine-producing country of the world except for the Canary Islands, Chile and Argentina, which have not been exposed to the insect. J. Robinson Jancis Robinson\'s Wine Course p. 97 Abbeville Press Publisher 2003 ISBN 0789208830
The variety of grape(s), aspect (direction of slope), elevation, and topography of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, the climate and seasonal conditions under which grapes are grown, and the local yeast cultures all together form the concept of "terroir." The range of possibilities lead to great variety among wine products, which is extended by the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes. Many small producers use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir. H. Johnson & J. Robinson The World Atlas of Wine pp. 22–3 Mitchell Beazley ISBN 1840003324
However, flavor differences are not desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency is more important. Producers will try to minimize differences in sources of grapes by using wine making technology such as micro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin film evaporation, and spinning cone. M. Citriglia High Alcohol is a Wine Fault… Not a Badge of Honor WineGeeks.com
A glass of white wine
Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in various regions of the world. France has an appellation system which ranges from Vin de Table ("table wine"), through Vin de Pays and Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (VDQS) up to Appellation d\'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) Wine classification. terroir-france. Retrieved on 2007-06-22. and which is based on the concept of terroir Terroir revisited: towards a working definition. wineanorak. Retrieved on 2007-06-22. (or region of origin) and wine quality. Like France, Portugal also has a governmental classification based on the region of the grapes and the quality of the wine. Portugal is also pioneer in the creation of the DOC ("Denominação de Origem Controlada" or AOC in Portuguese) by creating the Demarcated Douro Region and a system regulating its wine production and trade, by a royal charter in 1756 [1].Germany developed a similar system in 2002 ABOUT GERMAN WINE. German wine society. Retrieved on 2007-06-22. though this has not yet developed the authority of the French system. German Wine Guide: Wine Laws and Classifications. The Winedoctor. Retrieved on 2007-06-22. Spain Land of wines. Wines from Spain. Retrieved on 2007-07-17. and Italy also have a classification which is based on a dual system of region of origin and quality of product. Wine Classification — by Region or by Wine Type?. Wine Intro. Retrieved on 2007-07-17. New World wine, that is wines from outside of the traditional wine growing regions of Europe, tend to be classified by grape rather than by quality or region of origin, though there have been subjective attempts to classify by quality, Towards an Australian Wine Classification. Nicks Wine Merchants. Retrieved on 2007-07-17. most successfully by Langton\'s. Langton’s Australian Wine Classification IV. Retrieved on 2007-07-17.
Wines are usually named either by their grape variety or by their place of production. Generally speaking, European wines are named both after the place of production (e.g. Bordeaux, Rioja, Chianti, Cotnari) and the grapes used (e.g. Pinot, Riesling, Chardonnay, Merlot). Wines from everywhere except Europe are generally named for the grape variety. More and more, however, market recognition of particular regions and wineries is leading to their increased prominence on non-European wine labels. Examples of recognized locales include: Margaret River, Napa Valley, Barossa Valley, Willamette Valley, Cafayate, Marlborough, Walla Walla, Douro, Rioja etc.
Some blended wine names are marketing terms, and the use of these names is governed by trademark or copyright law, rather than a specific wine law or a patent on the actual varietal blend or process used to achieve it. For example, Meritage (pronounced to rhyme with "heritage") is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, and may also include Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, and Malbec, while the dôle is made from the Pinot Noir and Gamay grapes. Use of the term Meritage is protected by licensing agreements by The Meritage Association.
A vintage wine is one made from grapes that were all, or primarily, grown in a single specified year, and are accordingly dated as such. Variations in a wine\'s character from year to year can include subtle differences in color, palate, nose, body and development. Good quality red table wines in particular can improve in flavor with age if properly stored.Encyclopaedia Britannica: wine Consequently, it is not uncommon for wine enthusiasts and traders to save bottles of an especially good vintage wine for future consumption. Most countries allow a vintage wine to include a portion of wine that is not from the labeled vintage.
In the United States for a wine to be vintage dated (and labeled with a country of origin or American Viticultural Area (AVA), such as "New Zealand" or "Napa Valley") it must contain at least 95% of its volume from wines harvested in that year. Title 27, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) §4.27 If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA, such as "Napa County", it must contain at least 85% of its volume from wines harvested in that year.
Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will have a similar taste. Climatic factors can have a dramatic impact on the character of a wine to the extent that different vintages from the same vineyard can vary dramatically in flavor and quality.A primer on wine vintages Frenchscout.com Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages, from reputable producers and regions, will often fetch much higher prices than their average vintages. Some vintage wines are only made in better-than-average years.
Non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage for consistency, a process which allows wine makers to keep a reliable market image and also maintain sales even in bad vintage years.Platman, Clive. "WINE: Lovely bubbly", Birmingham Post, 2002-10-02. Retrieved on 2007-10-24. "Change to Vintage Date Requirements." Federal Register 70:84 (2 May 2006) p. 25739.
One recent study suggests that for normal drinkers, vintage year may not be as significant to perceived wine quality as currently thought,Roman L. Weil, Parker v. Prial: The Death of the Vintage Chart though wine connoisseurs continue to place a great importance on vintage.
Judging colour is the first step in tasting a wine
Wines may be classified by their primary impression on the drinker\'s palate. They are made up of chemical compounds which are similar or identical to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. The sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine. Dry wine, for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar.
Specific flavors may also be sensed, due to the highly complex mix of organic molecules such as esters and terpenes that grape juice and wine can contain. Tasters will also distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape (e.g., Cabernet Sauvignon and blackcurrant) and flavors that are imparted by other factors in wine making, either intentional or not. The most typical intentional flavor elements in wine are those that are imparted by aging in oak casks, and virtually every element of chocolate, vanilla, or coffee is actually a factor of oak and not the native grape.Major types of wine Frenchscout.com
Banana flavors (isoamyl acetate) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are spoilage aromas such as sweaty, barnyard, band-aid (4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol), Brettanomyces Monitoring by Analysis of 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol ETS Laboratories Technical Bulletin and rotten egg (hydrogen sulfide). Sulfides in Wine ETS Laboratories Technical Bulletin Some varietals can also have mineral flavor, due to the fact that some salts are soluble in water (as limestone), and thus absorbed by the vine.
Wine aroma is the result of the interaction between components of the grapes and those produced during winemaking process, fermentation and aging.M. Jose Gomez-Miguez, Manuela Gomez-Miguez, Isabel M. Vicario and Francisco J. Heredia, Assessment of colour and aroma in white wines vinifications: Effects of grape maturity and soil type, Journal of Food Engineering, Volume 79, Issue 3, April 2007, pp. 758–64. Being served at room temperature increases the vaporization of aroma compounds, making the wine more aromatic. For red wines that are already highly aromatic, for example Chinon and Beaujolais, the volatility of the wine makes it better served chilled. H. Johnson & J. Robinson The World Atlas of Wine pp. 44–5 Mitchell Beazley ISBN 1840003324
Château Margaux, a first growth from the Bordeaux region of France, is highly collectible.
At the highest end, rare, super-premium wines are amongst the most expensive of all food, and outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle. Such wines are considered by some as Veblen goods. The most common wines purchased for investment include Bordeaux, cult wines and Port. The reasons for these choices over thousands of other products and regions are:
Investment in fine wine has attracted fraudsters who play on fine wine\'s exclusive image and their clients\' ignorance of this sector of the wine market.McCoy, Elin. "Trophy Status and History Trump Taste in Fuss Over Old Wines." Bloomberg.com, March 20, 2007. Wine fraud scams often work by charging excessively high prices for the wine, while representing that it is a sound investment unaffected by economic cycles. Like any investment, proper research is essential before investing. False labeling is another dishonest practice commonly used.
| Rank | Country (with link to wine article) | Production (tonnes) |
|---|---|---|
| 1 |  France | 5,329,449 |
| 2 |  Italy | 5,056,648 |
| 3 |  Spain | 3,934,140 |
| 4 |  United States | 2,232,000 |
| 5 |  Argentina | 1,564,000 |
| 6 |  China | 1,300,000 |
| 7 |  Australia | 1,274,000 |
| 8 |  South Africa | 1,157,895 |
| 9 |  Germany | 1,014,700 |
| 10 |  Chile | 788,551 |
| 11 |  Portugal | 576,500 |
| 12 |  Romania | 575,000 |
| 13 |  Greece | 376,866 |
Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between thirty and fifty degrees north or south of the equator. The world\'s most southerly vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand\'s South Island near the 45th parallel,Courtney, S., New Zealand Wine Regions — Central Otago, 2001, Retrieved 24 February 2007. and the most northerly is in Flen, Sweden, just above the 59th parallel. Wine History Beer100.com]
The 15 largest exporting nations (2005 figures) – Italy, France, Spain, Australia, Chile, the United States, Germany, South Africa, Portugal, Romania, Moldova, Bulgaria, Hungary, Croatia and Argentina. California produces about 90% of the wine in the United States. In 2000, Great Britain imported more wine from Australia than from France for the first time in history.
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Wine yearly consumption, per capita: less than 1 litre. from 1 to 7 litres. from 7 to 15 litres. from 15 to 30 litres. More than 30 litres.
Wine is a popular and important beverage that accompanies and enhances a wide range of European and Mediterranean-style cuisines, from the simple and traditional to the most sophisticated and complex. Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a beverage, but as a flavor agent (primarily in stocks and braising) in which its acidity lends balance to rich savory or sweet dishes. Red, white and sparkling wines are the most popular, and are also known as light wines, because they only contain approximately 10–14% alcohol. (Alcohol percentages are usually by volume.) The apéritif and dessert wines contain 14–20% alcohol, and are fortified to make them richer and sweeter than the light wines.
The labels on certain bottles of wine suggest that they need to be set aside for an hour before drinking to breathe, while other wines are recommended to be drunk as soon as they are opened. Decanting is a controversial subject in wine. In addition to aeration, decanting removes some of the bitter sediments from the bottle. Sediment is more common in older bottles but younger wines benefit more from the aeration. H. Johnson & J. Robinson The World Atlas of Wine p. 46 Mitchell Beazley ISBN 1840003324
During aeration, the exposure of younger wines to air often "relaxes" the flavors and makes them taste smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Wines that are older generally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration."Fruity character and breathing times", New Straits Times, 2005-09-18. Retrieved on 2007-10-24. Breathing, however, does not benefit all wines, and should not therefore be taken to the extreme. In general, wine should be tasted as soon as it is opened to determine how long it may be aerated, if at all.
The use of wine in religious ceremonies is common to many cultures and regions. Libations often included wine, and the religious mysteries of Dionysus involved wine as a sacramental entheogen.
Wine plays an integral part of Jewish laws and traditions. The Kiddush, a blessing said before starting the first and second Shabbat or festival meals and Havdallah, a blessing said after the Shabbat or festival are required to be said over wine if available. On Pesach (Passover) during the Seder, it is also required to drink four cups of wine.Jewish holidays FAQ. In the Tabernacle and in the Temple in Jerusalem, the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service.Neusner, Jacob (2000). The Halakhah: An Encyclopaedia of the Law of Judaism. Boston, Massachusetts: BRILL, 82. ISBN 9004116176. A blessing over wine said before indulging in the drink is: "Baruch atah Adonai elohaynu melech ha-olam, boray p’ree hagafen" (Praised be the Eternal, Ruler of the universe, who makes the fruit of the vine).
In Christianity, wine or grape juice is used in a sacred rite called the Eucharist, Lord\'s Supper, or Communion, which originates in Gospel accounts of the Last Supper when Jesus shared bread and wine with his disciples and commanded his followers to "do this in remembrance of me." Beliefs about the nature of the Eucharist vary between denominations, with Roman Catholics believing that the bread and wine are changed into the real body and blood of Christ.
Wine was used in the rite by all Protestant groups until an alternative arose in 1869. Methodist minister-turned-dentist Thomas Bramwell Welch applied new pasteurization techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of grape juice. The substitution of grape juice for wine spread quickly over much of the United States in Protestant rites, although the beverage is usually called wine in accordance with scriptural references."Almost Like Wine", Time Magazine, 1956-09-03. Retrieved on 2007-10-24. Some Christians who were part of the growing temperance movement pressed for a switch from wine to grape juice. There remains an ongoing debate between some American Protestant denominations as to whether wine can or should be used in moderation for the Eucharist or as a regular beverage.
The use of wine is forbidden under Islam. Iran used to have a thriving wine industry that disappeared after the Islamic revolution in 1979.Tait, R. End of the vine. The Guardian Unlimited, October 2005.
| Red table wine Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) |
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy 80 kcal 360 kJ | |||||||||
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| 10.6 g alcohol is 13%vol. 100 g wine is approximately 100 ml (3.4 fl oz.) Sugar and alcohol content can vary. Source: USDA Nutrient database |
The health effects of wine (and alcohol in general) are the subject of considerable ongoing study.J.B. German and R.L. Walzem, The health benefits of wine, Ann Rev Nutr 20 (2000), pp. 561–593. In the USA, a boom in red wine consumption was initiated in the 1990s by \'60 Minutes\', and other news reports on the French paradox. The French paradox refers to the lower incidence of coronary heart disease in France than in the USA despite high levels of saturated fat in the traditional French diet. Epidemiologists suspect that this difference is attributed to the high consumption of wines by the French, however this suspicion is based on limited scientific evidence.
Population studies have observed a J curve association between wine consumption and the risk of heart disease. Stuart J., Adams. Red Wine. nutra-smart.net. Retrieved on 2007-07-17. This means that abstainers and heavy drinkers have an elevated risk, whilst moderate drinkers have a lower risk.Alcohol and Health. Population studies have also found that moderate consumption of other alcoholic beverages may be cardioprotective, though the association is considerably stronger for wine. These studies have found a protective effect from both red wine as well as white wine, though evidence from laboratory studies suggests that red wine may possess superior health benefits including prevention of cancer due to the fact red wine contains more polyphenols than white wine due to the production process. Cancer Prevention and Red Wine. MedicineNet. Retrieved on 2007-07-17.
A chemical called resveratrol is thought to be at least partly responsible for red wines\' health benefits, as it has been shown to exert a range of both cardioprotective as well as chemoprotective mechanisms in animal studies.Beata Olas, Barbara Wachowicz, Joanna Saluk-Juszczak and Tomasz Zielinski, Effect of resveratrol, a natural polyphenolic compound, on platelet activation induced by endotoxin or thrombin, Thrombosis Research, Volume 107, Issues 3–4, 15 August 2002, pp. 141–5. Resveratrol is produced naturally by grape skins in response to fungal infection, which includes exposure to yeast during fermentation. As white wine has minimal contact with grape skins during this process, it generally contains lower levels of resveratrol.Lucie Fremont, Biological effects of resveratrol, Life Sciences, Volume 66, Issue 8, 14 January 2000, pp. 663–73. Other beneficial compounds in wine include other polyphenols, antioxidants, and flavonoids.D.W. de Lange, From red wine to polyphenols and back: A journey through the history of the French Paradox, Thrombosis Research, Volume 119, Issue 4, 2007, pp. 403–6.
Red wines from South of France (Bordeaux, Cotes du Rhone and Bourgogne) and Sardinia Italy have been found to have the highest levels of procyanidins — the compounds in grape seeds responsible for making red wine good for the heart. Wines from France and Sardinia have between two and four times as much procyanidins as other red wines. Procyanidins suppress the synthesis of a peptide called endothelin-1 that constricts blood vessels. Corder, R.; W. Mullen, N. Q. Khan, S. C. Marks, E. G. Wood, M. J. Carrier and A. Crozier. "Oenology: Red wine procyanidins and vascular health". Nature 444 (566). doi:10.1038/444566a. Retrieved on 2007-07-17.
A 2007 study found that both red and white wines are effective anti-bacterial agents against strains of Streptococcus. Daglia, M.; A. Papetti, P. Grisoli, C. Aceti, C. Dacarro, and G. Gazzani (2007). "Antibacterial Activity of Red and White Wine against Oral Streptococci". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55 (13). Retrieved on 2007-07-17. . Interestingly, wine has traditionally been used to treat wounds in some parts of the world.Wine has anti-bacterial properties.
Whilst evidence from both laboratory studies as well as epidemiology (observational studies) suggests wine\'s cardioprotective effect, no evidence from controlled experiments — of which long-term studies are still ongoing — currently exists to determine the specific effect of wine or other alcohol on the risk of developing heart disease or stroke. Moreover, excessive consumption of alcohol including wine can cause some diseases including cirrhosis of the liver and alcoholism.General Information on Alcohol Use and Health, CDC, Retrieved 24 February 2007. Also the American Heart Association cautions people "not to start drinking … if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation".Alcohol, Wine and Cardiovascular Disease, American Heart Association, Retrieved February 2007.
Based on the UK unit system for measuring alcoholic content, the average bottle of wine contains 9.4 units.UK Department of Health: Alcohol and Health.
Sulphites are present in all wines and are formed as a natural product of the fermentation process. Additionally, many wine producers add sulphur dioxide in order to help preserve the wine. The level of added sulphites varies, and some wines have been marketed with low sulphite content.Ageing and Storing Wines, Wines of Canada, Retrieved 05 June 2007
Sulphites in wine are not a problem for most people, although some people, particularly people with asthma, can experience adverse reactions to them. Sulphur Dioxide is also added to many other foods though, for example in dried apricots and Orange Juice.
Most wines are sold in glass bottles and are sealed using a cork. Recently a growing number of wine producers have begun sealing their product with alternative closures such as screwcaps or synthetic plastic "corks." Some wines are packaged in heavy plastic bags, which are typically packaged further within cardboard boxes, similar to the packaging of breakfast cereal. One advantage of boxed-wine is that it can stay fresh for up to a month after opening, while bottled wine will start to oxidize immediately after opening. The contents of boxed wine are typically accessed via a tap on the side of the box. In addition to being less expensive, alternative closures prevent cork taint, although alternative closures can also cause other types of wine spoilage.
Wine cellars offer the opportunity to protect alcoholic beverages from potentially harmful external influences, providing darkness and a constant temperature. Wine is a natural, perishable food product. Left exposed to heat, light, vibration or fluctuations in temperature and humidity, all types of wine, including red, white, sparkling, and fortified, can spoil. When properly stored, wines not only maintain their quality but can actually improve in aroma, flavor, and complexity as they mature.
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| Wine styles | Red/White · Rosé/Blush · Sparkling · Dessert · Fortified · Fruit · Ice |
| White | Albariño · Chardonnay · Chenin blanc · Gewürztraminer · Grüner veltliner · Muscat · Pinot blanc · Pinot gris · Riesling · Sauvignon blanc · Sémillon · Silvaner · Viognier |
| Red | Barbera · Cabernet Franc · Cabernet Sauvignon · Dolcetto · Gamay · Grenache · Malbec · Merlot · Mourvèdre · Nebbiolo · Petite Sirah/Durif · Petit Verdot · Pinot Noir · Pinotage · Sangiovese · Syrah/Shiraz · Tempranillo · Zinfandel |
| Regionals | Amarone · Asti · Barbaresco · Barbera d\'Asti · Barolo · Barossa · Beaujolais · Bordeaux · Burgundy · Chablis · Champagne · Chianti · Commandaria · Dão · Egri Bikavér · Madeira · Marsala · Mosel · Muscadet · Port · Retsina · Rheingau · Rheinhessen · Rhône · Rioja · Sancerre · Sauternes · Sherry · Tokaji · Valpolicella · Vermouth · Vinho Verde · Vouvray |
| See also | Glossary · Grape varieties · Wine-producing regions · Wine-producing countries · Natural wine · |
